Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing
The first two years after an infant's birth is a time of transition for mothers as changes in roles, responsibilities, expectations, and behaviors occur in response to the demands of caring for newborn infants and young children. Mothers play pivotal roles in overall child development and health and may benefit from nursing intervention that assists in the transition to motherhood. A review of the intervention literature related to the promotion of effective mothering was performed in order to examine the range of interventions and evidence of their usefulness for maternal-child and pediatric nursing practice. Five broad categories of interventions appropriate for nursing practice were identified through the literature review. Home visiting, skin-to-skin contact, individual, infant-focused education/counseling, and theory-based group intervention have a specific applicability for the promotion of mothering in particular populations of mothers. Based on the evidence, nurses can incorporate selected strategies into nursing care to promote effective mothering during the first years of a child's life.
Sunday, March 25, 2007
Socioeconomic Status And Child Development
Annual Review of Psychology
Socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the most widely studied constructs in the social sciences. Several ways of measuring SES have been proposed, but most include some quantification of family income, parental education, and occupational status. Research shows that SES is associated with a wide array of health, cognitive, and socioemotional outcomes in children, with effects beginning prior to birth and continuing into adulthood. A variety of mechanisms linking SES to child well-being have been proposed, with most involving differences in access to material and social resources or reactions to stress-inducing conditions by both the children themselves and their parents. For children, SES impacts well-being at multiple levels, including both family and neighborhood. Its effects are moderated by children's own characteristics, family characteristics, and external support systems.
Socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the most widely studied constructs in the social sciences. Several ways of measuring SES have been proposed, but most include some quantification of family income, parental education, and occupational status. Research shows that SES is associated with a wide array of health, cognitive, and socioemotional outcomes in children, with effects beginning prior to birth and continuing into adulthood. A variety of mechanisms linking SES to child well-being have been proposed, with most involving differences in access to material and social resources or reactions to stress-inducing conditions by both the children themselves and their parents. For children, SES impacts well-being at multiple levels, including both family and neighborhood. Its effects are moderated by children's own characteristics, family characteristics, and external support systems.
Pathways from family economic conditions to adolescents' distress: Supportive parenting, stressors outside the family, and deviant peers
Journal of Community Psychology
Economic hardship is a stressor that affects large numbers of children and their families. This study estimated a model that included pathways linking economic conditions to the internalizing and externalizing symptoms of a multiethnic sample of urban adolescents. Similar to other prominent models, this model included parental distress and parenting as key constructs, but the expanded ecological model also included stressors outside the family and adolescents' associations with deviant peers as possible explanatory factors. Data from 300 adolescents and their parents were consistent with a model that showed linkages between economic conditions, parental depressive symptoms, supportive parenting, and internalizing symptoms. Stressors outside the family were associated with deviant peer affiliations which, in turn, predicted internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The implications of these findings for understanding economic conditions' influence on adolescents' mental health are discussed.
Economic hardship is a stressor that affects large numbers of children and their families. This study estimated a model that included pathways linking economic conditions to the internalizing and externalizing symptoms of a multiethnic sample of urban adolescents. Similar to other prominent models, this model included parental distress and parenting as key constructs, but the expanded ecological model also included stressors outside the family and adolescents' associations with deviant peers as possible explanatory factors. Data from 300 adolescents and their parents were consistent with a model that showed linkages between economic conditions, parental depressive symptoms, supportive parenting, and internalizing symptoms. Stressors outside the family were associated with deviant peer affiliations which, in turn, predicted internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The implications of these findings for understanding economic conditions' influence on adolescents' mental health are discussed.
The Family Context of Preadolescents' Orientations Toward Education: Effects of Maternal Orientations and Behavior
Journal of Educational Psychology
This study examines different pathways of maternal influence on the value that preadolescents attribute to mathematics and German language as domains of education. On the basis of data from 355 students and their mothers, the author tested effects of mothers' education, general parenting practices, leisure pursuits, joint activities with their children, school involvement, and their own evaluation of mathematics and German language. Results of structural equation modeling point to students' perceptions of maternal values as a central factor affecting students' values. Perceived maternal values vary depending on mothers' behavior rather than on values actually reported by mothers.
This study examines different pathways of maternal influence on the value that preadolescents attribute to mathematics and German language as domains of education. On the basis of data from 355 students and their mothers, the author tested effects of mothers' education, general parenting practices, leisure pursuits, joint activities with their children, school involvement, and their own evaluation of mathematics and German language. Results of structural equation modeling point to students' perceptions of maternal values as a central factor affecting students' values. Perceived maternal values vary depending on mothers' behavior rather than on values actually reported by mothers.
Family processes as pathways from income to young children's development
Developmental Psychology
A variety of family processes have been hypothesized to mediate associations between income and young children's development. Maternal emotional distress, parental authoritative and authoritarian behavior (videotaped mother-child interactions), and provision of cognitively stimulating activities (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment [HOME] scales) were examined as possible mediators in a sample of 493 White and African American low-birth-weight premature infants who were followed from birth through age 5. Cognitive ability was assessed by standardized test, and child behavior problems by maternal report, when the children were 3 and 5 years of age. As expected, family income was associated with child outcomes. The provision of stimulating experiences in the home mediated the relation between family income and both children's outcomes; maternal emotional distress and parenting practices mediated the relation between income and children's behavior problems.
A variety of family processes have been hypothesized to mediate associations between income and young children's development. Maternal emotional distress, parental authoritative and authoritarian behavior (videotaped mother-child interactions), and provision of cognitively stimulating activities (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment [HOME] scales) were examined as possible mediators in a sample of 493 White and African American low-birth-weight premature infants who were followed from birth through age 5. Cognitive ability was assessed by standardized test, and child behavior problems by maternal report, when the children were 3 and 5 years of age. As expected, family income was associated with child outcomes. The provision of stimulating experiences in the home mediated the relation between family income and both children's outcomes; maternal emotional distress and parenting practices mediated the relation between income and children's behavior problems.
Friday, March 16, 2007
Depressive Symptoms as a Longitudinal Predictor of Sexual Risk Behaviors Among US Middle and High School Students
Pediatrics
"RESULTS.
In adjusted models, boys and girls with high depressive symptom levels at baseline were significantly more likely than those with low symptom levels to report ≥1 of the examined sexual risk behaviors over the course of the 1-year follow-up period. For boys, high depressive symptom levels were specifically predictive of condom nonuse at last sex, birth control nonuse at last sex, and substance use at last sex; these results were similar to those of parallel analyses with a continuous depression measure. For girls, moderate depressive symptoms were associated with substance use at last sex, and no significant associations were found between high depressive symptom levels and individual sexual risk behaviors. Parallel analyses with the continuous depression measure found significant associations for condom nonuse at last sex, birth control nonuse at last sex, ≥3 sexual partners, and any sexual risk behavior.
CONCLUSION. In this study, depressive symptoms predicted sexual risk behavior in a national sample of male and female middle and high school students over a 1-year period."
"RESULTS.
In adjusted models, boys and girls with high depressive symptom levels at baseline were significantly more likely than those with low symptom levels to report ≥1 of the examined sexual risk behaviors over the course of the 1-year follow-up period. For boys, high depressive symptom levels were specifically predictive of condom nonuse at last sex, birth control nonuse at last sex, and substance use at last sex; these results were similar to those of parallel analyses with a continuous depression measure. For girls, moderate depressive symptoms were associated with substance use at last sex, and no significant associations were found between high depressive symptom levels and individual sexual risk behaviors. Parallel analyses with the continuous depression measure found significant associations for condom nonuse at last sex, birth control nonuse at last sex, ≥3 sexual partners, and any sexual risk behavior.
CONCLUSION. In this study, depressive symptoms predicted sexual risk behavior in a national sample of male and female middle and high school students over a 1-year period."
Child Maltreatment in the United States: Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Adolescent Health Consequences
Pediatrics
"RESULTS. Having been left home alone as a child, indicating possible supervision neglect, was most prevalent (reported by 41.5% of respondents), followed by physical assault (28.4%), physical neglect (11.8%), and contact sexual abuse (4.5%). Each sociodemographic characteristic was associated with ≥1 type of maltreatment, and race/ethnicity was associated with all 4. Each type of maltreatment was associated with no fewer than 8 of the 10 adolescent health risks examined.
CONCLUSIONS. Self-reported childhood maltreatment was common. The likelihood of maltreatment varied across many sociodemographic characteristics. Each type of maltreatment was associated with multiple adolescent health risks."
"RESULTS. Having been left home alone as a child, indicating possible supervision neglect, was most prevalent (reported by 41.5% of respondents), followed by physical assault (28.4%), physical neglect (11.8%), and contact sexual abuse (4.5%). Each sociodemographic characteristic was associated with ≥1 type of maltreatment, and race/ethnicity was associated with all 4. Each type of maltreatment was associated with no fewer than 8 of the 10 adolescent health risks examined.
CONCLUSIONS. Self-reported childhood maltreatment was common. The likelihood of maltreatment varied across many sociodemographic characteristics. Each type of maltreatment was associated with multiple adolescent health risks."
Family Characteristics Have More Influence On Child Development Than Does Experience In Child Care
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
"Family Characteristics Have More Influence On Child Development Than Does Experience In Child Care
A compendium of findings from a study funded by the National Institutes of Health reveals that a child’s family life has more influence on a child’s development through age four and a half than does a child’s experience in child care.
“This study shows only a slight link between child care and child development,” said Duane Alexander, M.D., Director of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the NIH component which funded the study. “Child care clearly matters to children’s development, but family characteristics — and children’s experiences within their families — appear to matter more.”"
...
"Family Characteristics Have More Influence On Child Development Than Does Experience In Child Care
A compendium of findings from a study funded by the National Institutes of Health reveals that a child’s family life has more influence on a child’s development through age four and a half than does a child’s experience in child care.
“This study shows only a slight link between child care and child development,” said Duane Alexander, M.D., Director of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the NIH component which funded the study. “Child care clearly matters to children’s development, but family characteristics — and children’s experiences within their families — appear to matter more.”"
...
Monday, March 12, 2007
UN bid to condemn sex-selection abortion
Catholic World News
"Despite a groundswell of support at the UN's Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) this week, a US-sponsored resolution calling on states to eliminate prenatal sex selection and female infanticide has been withdrawn due to pressure from China, India, Canada, Costa Rica, Mexico and others, the Catholic Family and Human Rights Institute (C-Fam) reports.
China lobbied against the resolution at the highest levels of UN delegations, reports Samantha Singson in C-Fam's Friday Fax. The Indian delegation likewise lobbied forcefully against it. It is likely that India and China objected because, even though the resolution focused on the global nature of the problem, they believed it would draw attention to the fact that theirs are the worst cases of female infanticide and sex-selection abortion. Demographers estimate that about 100 million girls are already “missing.”
Other delegations also worked to derail the resolution by maneuver, thus avoiding discussion about the rising trend of killing baby girls and the substance of the resolution. Canada worked against the resolution by loading up the draft document with language that the US could not support. Costa Rica did the same, although it is unclear why the pro-life country worked so hard to oppose the initiative, or why Mexico chose to oppose it.
...
"Despite a groundswell of support at the UN's Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) this week, a US-sponsored resolution calling on states to eliminate prenatal sex selection and female infanticide has been withdrawn due to pressure from China, India, Canada, Costa Rica, Mexico and others, the Catholic Family and Human Rights Institute (C-Fam) reports.
China lobbied against the resolution at the highest levels of UN delegations, reports Samantha Singson in C-Fam's Friday Fax. The Indian delegation likewise lobbied forcefully against it. It is likely that India and China objected because, even though the resolution focused on the global nature of the problem, they believed it would draw attention to the fact that theirs are the worst cases of female infanticide and sex-selection abortion. Demographers estimate that about 100 million girls are already “missing.”
Other delegations also worked to derail the resolution by maneuver, thus avoiding discussion about the rising trend of killing baby girls and the substance of the resolution. Canada worked against the resolution by loading up the draft document with language that the US could not support. Costa Rica did the same, although it is unclear why the pro-life country worked so hard to oppose the initiative, or why Mexico chose to oppose it.
...
Sunday, March 11, 2007
A Review of the Relationship Among Parenting Practices, Parenting Styles, and Adolescent School Achievement
Educational Psychology Review
This article reviews the literature on the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. The review of the empirical research indicates that parental involvement and monitoring are robust predictors of adolescent achievement. Several studies, however, indicate that parental involvement declines in adolescence, prompting the call for future research on the reasons for and associated consequences of this decline. Furthermore, the review indicates that authoritative parenting styles are often associated with higher levels of student achievement, although these findings are not consistent across culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Darling and Steinbergrsquos contextual model of parenting provides a promising model to help resolve these discrepancies, however, further research is needed to examine the major linkages of the model. It is also argued that the contextual model should expand its notion of context towards the larger cultural and economic context in which families reside. ...
This article reviews the literature on the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. The review of the empirical research indicates that parental involvement and monitoring are robust predictors of adolescent achievement. Several studies, however, indicate that parental involvement declines in adolescence, prompting the call for future research on the reasons for and associated consequences of this decline. Furthermore, the review indicates that authoritative parenting styles are often associated with higher levels of student achievement, although these findings are not consistent across culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Darling and Steinbergrsquos contextual model of parenting provides a promising model to help resolve these discrepancies, however, further research is needed to examine the major linkages of the model. It is also argued that the contextual model should expand its notion of context towards the larger cultural and economic context in which families reside. ...
Neighborhood and Family Influences on Educational Attainment: Results from the Ontario Child Health Study Follow-Up 2001
Child Development
This study uses multilevel models to examine longitudinal associations between contextual influences (neighborhood and family) assessed in 1983 in a cohort of 2,355 children, 4–16 years of age, and educational attainment in 2001. Variation in educational attainment in 2001 attributable to between-neighborhood and between-family differences was 8.17% and 36.88%, respectively. The final model explained 33.64% of the variance in educational attainment, with unique variances of 14.53% for neighborhood and family-level variables combined versus 10.94% for child-level variables. Among the neighborhood and family-level variables, indicators of status (5.29%) versus parental capacity/family process (4.03%) made comparable predictions to attainment while children from economically disadvantaged families did not benefit educationally from living in more affluent areas.
This study uses multilevel models to examine longitudinal associations between contextual influences (neighborhood and family) assessed in 1983 in a cohort of 2,355 children, 4–16 years of age, and educational attainment in 2001. Variation in educational attainment in 2001 attributable to between-neighborhood and between-family differences was 8.17% and 36.88%, respectively. The final model explained 33.64% of the variance in educational attainment, with unique variances of 14.53% for neighborhood and family-level variables combined versus 10.94% for child-level variables. Among the neighborhood and family-level variables, indicators of status (5.29%) versus parental capacity/family process (4.03%) made comparable predictions to attainment while children from economically disadvantaged families did not benefit educationally from living in more affluent areas.
Thursday, March 08, 2007
Placing Emotional Self-Regulation in Sociocultural and Socioeconomic Contexts
Child Development
C. CybeleRaver
In their review, Cole, Martin, and Dennis (this issue) relied on a valuable set of empirical examples of emotion regulation in infancy, toddlerhood, and the preschool period to make their case. These examples can be extended to include an emergent body of published research examining normative emotional regulatory processes among low-income and ethnic minority children using similar experimental methods. The following article considers emotion regulation across differing income, risk, and sociocultural contexts. Review of this literature points to ways these broader contexts are likely to influence children's development of emotional self-regulation. This review also points to innovative analytic approaches that might be useful in inferring causal mechanisms in emotion regulation research.
C. CybeleRaver
In their review, Cole, Martin, and Dennis (this issue) relied on a valuable set of empirical examples of emotion regulation in infancy, toddlerhood, and the preschool period to make their case. These examples can be extended to include an emergent body of published research examining normative emotional regulatory processes among low-income and ethnic minority children using similar experimental methods. The following article considers emotion regulation across differing income, risk, and sociocultural contexts. Review of this literature points to ways these broader contexts are likely to influence children's development of emotional self-regulation. This review also points to innovative analytic approaches that might be useful in inferring causal mechanisms in emotion regulation research.
Income Is Not Enough: Incorporating Material Hardship Into Models of Income Associations With Parenting and Child Development
Child Development
Although research has clearly established that low family income has negative impacts on children's cognitive skills and social–emotional competence, less often is a family's experience of material hardship considered. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 (N=21,255), this study examined dual components of family income and material hardship along with parent mediators of stress, positive parenting, and investment as predictors of 6-year-old children's cognitive skills and social–emotional competence. Support was found for a model that identified unique parent-mediated paths from income to cognitive skills and from income and material hardship to social–emotional competence. The findings have implications for future study of family income and child development and for identification of promising targets for policy intervention.
Although research has clearly established that low family income has negative impacts on children's cognitive skills and social–emotional competence, less often is a family's experience of material hardship considered. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 (N=21,255), this study examined dual components of family income and material hardship along with parent mediators of stress, positive parenting, and investment as predictors of 6-year-old children's cognitive skills and social–emotional competence. Support was found for a model that identified unique parent-mediated paths from income to cognitive skills and from income and material hardship to social–emotional competence. The findings have implications for future study of family income and child development and for identification of promising targets for policy intervention.
Sunday, March 04, 2007
Economic Pressure and Children's Psychological Functioning
Journal of Child and Family Studies
We examined the mediating role of family dynamics (marital quality, parental depression) in the link between economic pressure and child psychological functioning using the data from the National Survey of Family and Households (NSFH). From the initial multiethnic probability sample, we used a subsample of 2998 parents with a focal child 5 to 17 years of age. We used structural equation modeling using AMOS 4.0 to test the model. The results indicated support for associations among economic pressure, marital quality, parental depression, parenting strategies and children outcomes. Economic pressure was associated with lower marital quality and higher depression. Higher conflict and psychological distress was associated with frequent use of harsh discipline techniques and lower psychological functioning in children.
We examined the mediating role of family dynamics (marital quality, parental depression) in the link between economic pressure and child psychological functioning using the data from the National Survey of Family and Households (NSFH). From the initial multiethnic probability sample, we used a subsample of 2998 parents with a focal child 5 to 17 years of age. We used structural equation modeling using AMOS 4.0 to test the model. The results indicated support for associations among economic pressure, marital quality, parental depression, parenting strategies and children outcomes. Economic pressure was associated with lower marital quality and higher depression. Higher conflict and psychological distress was associated with frequent use of harsh discipline techniques and lower psychological functioning in children.
Saturday, March 03, 2007
New Directions in Analyses of Parenting Contributions to Children's Acquisition of Values
Child Development
Grusec, Goodnow & Kuczynski
Traditional theories of how children acquire values or standards of behavior have emphasized the importance of specific parenting techniques or styles and have acknowledged the importance of a responsive parent–child relationship, but they have failed to differentiate among forms of responsiveness, have stressed internalization of values as the desired outcome, and have limited their scope to a small set of parenting strategies or methods. This paper outlines new directions for research. It acknowledges the central importance of parents and argues for research that (1) demonstrates that parental understanding of a particular child's characteristics and situation rather than use of specific strategies or styles is the mark of effective parenting; (2) traces the differential impact of varieties of parent responsiveness; (3) assesses the conditions surrounding the fact that parents have goals other than internalization when socializing their children, and evaluates the impact of that fact; and (4) considers a wider range of parenting strategies.
Grusec, Goodnow & Kuczynski
Traditional theories of how children acquire values or standards of behavior have emphasized the importance of specific parenting techniques or styles and have acknowledged the importance of a responsive parent–child relationship, but they have failed to differentiate among forms of responsiveness, have stressed internalization of values as the desired outcome, and have limited their scope to a small set of parenting strategies or methods. This paper outlines new directions for research. It acknowledges the central importance of parents and argues for research that (1) demonstrates that parental understanding of a particular child's characteristics and situation rather than use of specific strategies or styles is the mark of effective parenting; (2) traces the differential impact of varieties of parent responsiveness; (3) assesses the conditions surrounding the fact that parents have goals other than internalization when socializing their children, and evaluates the impact of that fact; and (4) considers a wider range of parenting strategies.
Monday, February 19, 2007
Abortion Policies: A Global Review - Gabon to Norway
UN Publications
"Although abortion is commonly practiced throughout most of the world and has been practiced since long before the beginning of recorded history, it is a subject that arouses passion and controversy. This study aims at providing objective information about the nature of laws and policies in all countries from Afghanistan to France, relating to abortion at the end of the twentieth century. It consists of an analysis of abortion laws and policies, which includes information on the social and political settings of these developments, the ways in which these laws and policies have been formulated, and how they have evolved over time. Although information on the incidence of abortion and the setting within which abortion takes place are not the focus of the study, the data is provided to enrich the policy picture."
"Although abortion is commonly practiced throughout most of the world and has been practiced since long before the beginning of recorded history, it is a subject that arouses passion and controversy. This study aims at providing objective information about the nature of laws and policies in all countries from Afghanistan to France, relating to abortion at the end of the twentieth century. It consists of an analysis of abortion laws and policies, which includes information on the social and political settings of these developments, the ways in which these laws and policies have been formulated, and how they have evolved over time. Although information on the incidence of abortion and the setting within which abortion takes place are not the focus of the study, the data is provided to enrich the policy picture."
Thursday, January 25, 2007
The contribution of adult personality and recalled parent-child relations to friendships in middle and old age
International Journal of Behavioral Development
Vera Heyl
Marina Schmitt
In this study we examined personality traits, in particular openness to experience and agreeableness, and–in an exploratory step – recalled parent–child relations as antecedents of friendship involvement in adulthood. Data from 392 middle-aged (43–46 years) and 345 older participants (61–64 years) in the first wave of the Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study of Adult Development (ILSE) support the hypothesis that openness contributes to friendship involvement in middle age, while agreeableness contributes to friendship involvement in old age. Further, structural equation models showed that the relation between recalled mother–child relationship and friendship involvement in older adults was mediated by agreeableness. Recalled father–child relationship was directly associated with friendships in both age groups, independent of personality traits."
Vera Heyl
Marina Schmitt
In this study we examined personality traits, in particular openness to experience and agreeableness, and–in an exploratory step – recalled parent–child relations as antecedents of friendship involvement in adulthood. Data from 392 middle-aged (43–46 years) and 345 older participants (61–64 years) in the first wave of the Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study of Adult Development (ILSE) support the hypothesis that openness contributes to friendship involvement in middle age, while agreeableness contributes to friendship involvement in old age. Further, structural equation models showed that the relation between recalled mother–child relationship and friendship involvement in older adults was mediated by agreeableness. Recalled father–child relationship was directly associated with friendships in both age groups, independent of personality traits."
Thursday, December 14, 2006
Vulnerable Adolescent Girls: Opposite-sex Relationships
J Child Psychol & Psychiat
This interview-based study compares the opposite-sex relationships of 50 girls, aged 15–16, identified as being at risk for difficulties in early adult partnerships, with 50 girls of the same age from an inner-city school. The high-risk girls had begun solo-dating earlier than the school girls, were more likely to have had a sexual relationship, to have had more sexual partners, to have been pregnant, and to have had a child. A third of the girls in both groups were solo-dating at the time of the interview. In contrast to the school girls, the high-risk girls attached a prominence and permanence to their current dating relationships, which already bore the hallmarks of later unsupportive partnerships."
This interview-based study compares the opposite-sex relationships of 50 girls, aged 15–16, identified as being at risk for difficulties in early adult partnerships, with 50 girls of the same age from an inner-city school. The high-risk girls had begun solo-dating earlier than the school girls, were more likely to have had a sexual relationship, to have had more sexual partners, to have been pregnant, and to have had a child. A third of the girls in both groups were solo-dating at the time of the interview. In contrast to the school girls, the high-risk girls attached a prominence and permanence to their current dating relationships, which already bore the hallmarks of later unsupportive partnerships."
Sunday, December 10, 2006
Family and School Influences on Behavioural Development
J Child Psychol & Psychiat
Michael Rutter
Abstract—Research findings are reviewed with respect to possible family and school influences on behavioural development, but with special reference to socially disapproved conduct. The hypothesis that statistical associations between environmental variables and children's disorders represent causal connections is considered in terms of the three main alternatives—hereditary influences, the effect of children on their parents, and the operation of some third variable. It is concluded that each has some validity but that nevertheless there are true environmental effects. The mechanisms underlying their operation are discussed with respect to parental criminality, family discord, weak family relationships, ineffective discipline, and peer group influences. Individual differences in response to adversity are discussed in terms of age, sex, temperament, genetic factors, coping processes, patterning of stressors, compensatory good experiences and catalytic factors. The various ways in which environmental effects may persist over time are considered in terms of linkages within the environment as well as within the child. It is concluded that long-term effects are far from independent from intervening circumstances."
Michael Rutter
Abstract—Research findings are reviewed with respect to possible family and school influences on behavioural development, but with special reference to socially disapproved conduct. The hypothesis that statistical associations between environmental variables and children's disorders represent causal connections is considered in terms of the three main alternatives—hereditary influences, the effect of children on their parents, and the operation of some third variable. It is concluded that each has some validity but that nevertheless there are true environmental effects. The mechanisms underlying their operation are discussed with respect to parental criminality, family discord, weak family relationships, ineffective discipline, and peer group influences. Individual differences in response to adversity are discussed in terms of age, sex, temperament, genetic factors, coping processes, patterning of stressors, compensatory good experiences and catalytic factors. The various ways in which environmental effects may persist over time are considered in terms of linkages within the environment as well as within the child. It is concluded that long-term effects are far from independent from intervening circumstances."
Wednesday, November 29, 2006
Opinion: Common ground on abortion
The Seattle Times: Opinion
E.J. Dionne
"If both parties combine wisdom with shrewdness, the election of a new congressional majority should open the way for a better approach to the abortion question.
The bitter political brawling of the past three decades has created an unproductive stalemate that leaves abortion opponents frustrated, abortion-rights supporters in a constant state of worry, and the many Americans who hold middle-ground positions on abortion feeling there is no one who speaks for them.
But the politics of abortion began to change even before this month's elections. In September, a group of 23 pro-choice and pro-life Democratic House members introduced what they called the 'Reducing the Need for Abortion and Supporting Parents Act.'
OK, it's not the catchiest title, but you get the point. The bill — its sponsor is Rep. Tim Ryan, D-Ohio, an abortion opponent, with Rep. Rosa DeLauro, D-Conn., an abortion-rights supporter, as a leading co-sponsor — took a lot of negotiation. Supporters of abortion rights tend to favor programs that encourage effective contraception, which some in the right-to-life movement oppose. Opponents of abortion emphasize helping women who want to carry their children to term.
The Ryan bill, one of several congressional initiatives to reduce the abortion rate, does both. It includes a remarkably broad set of programs aimed at reducing teen pregnancy, promoting contraception and encouraging parental responsibility. But it also includes strong measures to offer new mothers full access to health coverage, child care and nutrition assistance.
The public debate usually ignores the fact that abortion rates are closely tied to income. As the Guttmacher Institute has reported, "the abortion rate among women living below the federal poverty level ... is more than four times that of women above 300 percent of the poverty level." The numbers are stark: 44 abortions per 1,000 women in the lower-income group, 10 abortions per 1,000 women in the higher-income group.
In other words: If you truly care about reducing the number of abortions, you have to care about the well-being of poor women.
There are moral and practical reasons for members of both parties, and combatants on both sides of the abortion question, to embrace this approach.
Liberal supporters of abortion rights should be eager to promote a measure that does not make abortion illegal, but does embrace goals, including help for the poor, that liberals have long advocated.
In the meantime, the victories opponents of abortion rights have won in fact do little to reduce the number of abortions. As Rachel Laser, director of the Third Way Culture Project, points out, even those who would ban late-term or partial-birth abortions need to acknowledge that very few are performed, meaning that these laws do little to reduce the overall abortion rate. According to one study cited by Laser, only 0.08 percent of abortions are performed in the third trimester.
...
E.J. Dionne
"If both parties combine wisdom with shrewdness, the election of a new congressional majority should open the way for a better approach to the abortion question.
The bitter political brawling of the past three decades has created an unproductive stalemate that leaves abortion opponents frustrated, abortion-rights supporters in a constant state of worry, and the many Americans who hold middle-ground positions on abortion feeling there is no one who speaks for them.
But the politics of abortion began to change even before this month's elections. In September, a group of 23 pro-choice and pro-life Democratic House members introduced what they called the 'Reducing the Need for Abortion and Supporting Parents Act.'
OK, it's not the catchiest title, but you get the point. The bill — its sponsor is Rep. Tim Ryan, D-Ohio, an abortion opponent, with Rep. Rosa DeLauro, D-Conn., an abortion-rights supporter, as a leading co-sponsor — took a lot of negotiation. Supporters of abortion rights tend to favor programs that encourage effective contraception, which some in the right-to-life movement oppose. Opponents of abortion emphasize helping women who want to carry their children to term.
The Ryan bill, one of several congressional initiatives to reduce the abortion rate, does both. It includes a remarkably broad set of programs aimed at reducing teen pregnancy, promoting contraception and encouraging parental responsibility. But it also includes strong measures to offer new mothers full access to health coverage, child care and nutrition assistance.
The public debate usually ignores the fact that abortion rates are closely tied to income. As the Guttmacher Institute has reported, "the abortion rate among women living below the federal poverty level ... is more than four times that of women above 300 percent of the poverty level." The numbers are stark: 44 abortions per 1,000 women in the lower-income group, 10 abortions per 1,000 women in the higher-income group.
In other words: If you truly care about reducing the number of abortions, you have to care about the well-being of poor women.
There are moral and practical reasons for members of both parties, and combatants on both sides of the abortion question, to embrace this approach.
Liberal supporters of abortion rights should be eager to promote a measure that does not make abortion illegal, but does embrace goals, including help for the poor, that liberals have long advocated.
In the meantime, the victories opponents of abortion rights have won in fact do little to reduce the number of abortions. As Rachel Laser, director of the Third Way Culture Project, points out, even those who would ban late-term or partial-birth abortions need to acknowledge that very few are performed, meaning that these laws do little to reduce the overall abortion rate. According to one study cited by Laser, only 0.08 percent of abortions are performed in the third trimester.
...
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